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Recordings were made at depths of 5 and 30 m for both locations, as well as at 100 and 200 m in the deeper water to examine the effect of the echosounder through the water column and at SRKW diving depths. The experiment was conducted in shallow (34 m) and deep (220–235 m) water. This is the minimum vessel approach distance for killer whales (Orcinus orca) in southern British Columbia, which was introduced as a measure for limiting disturbance of southern resident killer whales (SRKWs). Sound emissions of output frequencies of 83 kHz and 200 kHz were tested at a maximum distance of 400 m. The spatial extent of a dual-frequency echosounder and its potential impact on cetacean species were examined. Using field metabolic rate estimates from the literature and the energetic content of herring caught locally, killer whales required an estimated 285–578 herring/day to balance daily energy requirements. Whales spent at least 37%–65% of time over 24 hr feeding. Using kinematic data, a total of 18 carousel feeding bouts and 206 deep feeding dives were identified. Average number of prey consumed per minute was 1.08 ± 0.43 for carousel feeding and 0.43 ± 0.07 for seiner feeding (n = 122 prey capture events). Prey consumption during on camera feeding bouts was also measured to calculate profitability of feeding bouts for the different behaviors. The feeding behaviors identified from the video data allowed for determination of associated kinematic signatures, which were used to further identify and characterize carousel feeding and deep feeding dives over the entire logger duration.
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Video recorded two killer whales engaged in carousel feeding, and two engaged in seiner feeding (i.e., feeding on herring discards around purse seiner vessels). This study used multisensory data tags with integrated 4K video to investigate feeding behavior and prey profitability in five adult male killer whales (Orcinus orca) at herring wintering grounds in Norway, in 20. This dual approach of kinematic detection of prey capture coupled with hypothesis testing can be applied across odontocetes and other marine predators to investigate the impacts of social, environmental and anthropogenic factors on foraging ecology. Additionally, only half of the tag deployments on females (5 out of 10) included a prey capture dive, whereas all tag deployments on males exhibited at least one prey capture dive (12 out of 12).
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Males made significantly more prey capture dives than females and more dives to the depth of their preferred prey, Chinook salmon. Detection of prey capture dives by movement signatures enabled substantially more dives to be included in subsequent analyses compared with previous surface or acoustic detection methods. Predation events were significantly predicted by peaks in the rate of change of acceleration ('jerk peak'), roll angle and heading variance. We used multisensor bio-logging tags attached by suction cups to Southern Resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) to: (1) identify a stereotyped movement signature that co-occurred with visually confirmed prey capture dives (2) construct a prey capture dive detector and validate it against acoustically confirmed prey capture dives and (3) demonstrate the utility of the detector by testing hypotheses about foraging ecology. We sought to determine whether subsurface movement behavior recorded from archival tags could accurately identify foraging events by fish-eating killer whales. Studies of odontocete foraging ecology have been limited by the challenges of observing prey capture events and outcomes underwater.
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